Endnotes

¹ The Siberian railway being now opened along the whole of this distance, they will be transported by rail.

² Yearly Report of the Chief Board of Prisons for 1882 (Russian).-Vyestnik Europy, 1883, vol. i.

³ V. Nikitin, "Prison and Exile," St. Petersburg, 1880. "Our Penal Institutions," by the same, in Russkiy Vyestnik, 1881, vol. cliii.-Report of the Medical Department of the Ministry of Interior for 1883.

⁴ There is no need to travel to Siberia to ascertain these facts. They are published in an official publication which may be consulted at the British Museum, namely, in the "Journal of Legal Medicine" published by the Medical Department of the Ministry of the Interior, 1874, vol. iii.

⁵ Same official publication, vol. iii.

⁶ Dr. Leontovitch, in Archiv of Legal Medicine and Hygiene, for 1871, vol. iii.; and in Sbornik, published by the Medical Department of the Ministry of the Interior, 1873, vol. iii., p. 127. Shall I add that both of the Archiv and Sbornik have been suppressed for their opasnoye napravleniye, that is, "dangerous direction"? Even official figures are dangerous to the Russian autocracy.

⁷ Sbornik Svyedeniy po Rossii for 1883. St. Petersburg, 1886.

⁸ Otchot Medicinskago Departamenta for 1883. St. Petersburg, 1886.

⁹ Mr. Thalberg, in the St. Petersburg review the Vyestnik Evropy, May 1879.

¹⁰ For those who are unacquainted with fortress terminology the following explanations may be useful. Each fortress has the shape of a polygon. At the protruding angles are bastions, that is, pentagonal spaces enclosed between two long and two short walls, and having sometimes a second interior building - the reduct -this last being a two- storied pentagonal suite of vaulted casemates, intended for the defense of the bastion when its outer wall is already damaged. Each two bastions are connected by a courtine. The courtine and the two interior angles of the bastions being the weakest parts of the fortifications, they are often masked by a triangular fortification made outside the fortress proper (but enclosed within the same glacis) - the ravelin. The St. Petersburg fortress has but two ravelins; the Trubetskoi in the west, and the Alexeievskiy in the east.

¹¹ The cells in common prisons - those, for instance, of the prison of Lyons, in France - although having windows of the same size, cannot be compared for brightness with those of the fortress.

¹² The authentic record of their imprisonment was published in the Will of the People, and reproduced in the publication N'a Rodinye ("At Home").

¹³ Vyestnik Narodnoi Voli, No. 3, 1884, p. 180. Stepniak's "Russia under the Czars," ch. xix.

¹⁴ Nineteenth Century, June, 1883.

¹⁵ Their names and the condemnations are given in Appendix.

¹⁶ Vyestnik Narodnoi Voli, vol. i., November, 1883.

¹⁷ Let those who will not fail to express "a doubt" about this story, read M. Prougavin's paper in the November number of the Panslavist review Rusakaya Mysl for 1881, his papers in the Golos of the same epoch, the Moscow Telegraph of November 15, 1881, and so on.

¹⁸ Pavlovsky, in a series of articles published by the Paris Temps, with a preface of Turgueneff.

¹⁹ Reprinted from the Nineteenth Century, by permission.

²⁰ Reprinted from The Nineteenth Century, by permission.

²¹ Our criminal statistics are so imperfect that a thorough classification of exiles is very difficult. We have but one good work on this subject, by M. Anuchin, published a few years ago by the Russian Geographical Society and crowned with its great gold medal; it gives the criminal statistics for the years 1827 to 1846. However old, these statistics still give an approximate idea of the present conditions, as recent partial statistics has shown that since that time all figures have doubled, but the relative proportions of different categories of exiles have remained nearly the same. Thus to quote but one instance, out of the 159,755 exiled during the years 1827 to 1846, no fess then 79,909, or 50 per cent., were exiled by simple orders of the Administrative; and thirty years later we find again nearly the same rate—slightly increased--of arbitrary exile (78,871 out of 151,184 in 1867 to 1876). The same is approximately true with regard to other categories. It appears from M. Anuchin's researches that out of the 79,846 condemned by courts, 14,531 (725 per year) were condemned as assassins; 14,248 for heavier crimes, such as incendiarism, robbery, and forgery; 40,666 for stealing, and 1426 for smuggling, making thus a total of 70,871 cases (about 3545 per year), which would have been condemned by the Codes-although not always by a jury- of all countries in Europe. The remainder, however (that is, nearly 89,000), were exiled for offenses which depended chiefly, if not entirely, upon the political institutions of Russia; their crimes were: rebellion against any serf-proprie tors and authorities (16,456 cases); nonconformist fanaticism (2138 cases); desertion from a twenty-five years' military service (1651 cases); and escape from Siberia, mostly from Administrative exile (18,328 cases). Finally, we find among them the enormous figure of 48,466 "vagrants," of whom the laureate of the Geographical Society says:-" Vagrancy mostly means simply going to a neighboring province without a passport "-out of 48,466 "vagrants," 40,000 at least, "being merely people who have not complied with passport regulations "-(that is, their wife and children being brought to starvation, they had not the necessary five or ten rubles for taking a passport, and walked from Kalouga or Tula, to Odessa, or Astrakhan, in search of labor). And he adds:-" Considering these 80,000 exiled by order of the Administrative, we not only doubt their criminality, we simply doubt the very existence of such crimes as those imputed to them." The number of such "criminals" has not diminished since. It has nearly doubled, like other figures. Russia continues to send every year to Siberia for life, four to five thousand men and women, who in other States would be simply condemned to a fine of a few shillings. To these ''criminals'' we must add no less than 1500 women and 2000 to 2500 children who follow every year their husbands or parents, enduring all the horrors of a march through Siberia and of the exile.

²² The railway across the Urals having been opened for traffic, they will be transported by rail.

²³ According to law the families of the convicts must no be submitted to the control of the convoy. In reality they are submitted to the same treatment as the convict To quote but one instance. The Tomsk correspondent of the Moscow Telegraph wrote on the 3rd of November 1881:-"We have seen on the march the party which left Tomsk on the 14th of September. The exhausted women and children literally stuck in the mud, and the soldier dealt them blows to make them advance and to keep pace with the party." sorrow recall the tortures of the last century, the stifled cries under the sticks and whips of our own time, the darkness of the cellars, the wildness of the woods, the tears of the starving wife. The peasants of the villages on the Siberian highway understand these tones; they know their true meaning from their own experience, and the appeal of the Neschastnyie — of the "sufferers," as our people call all prisoners-is answered by the poor; the most destitute widow, signing herself with the cross, brings her coppers, or her piece of bread, and deeply bows before the chained "sufferer," grateful to him for not disdaining her small offering.

²⁴ The Kutomara and Alexanilrovsk silver-mines have always been renowned for their insalulbrity, on account of "the arsenical emanations from the ore; not only men, but also cattle, suffered from them, and it is well known that the inhabitants of these villages were compelled, for this reason, to raise their young cattle in neighboring villages. AS to the quicksilver emanations, every one who has consulted any serious work on the Nertchinsk mining district knows that the silver-ore of these mines is usually accompanied with cinnabar-especially in the mines of Shakhtama and Kultuma, both worked out by convicts who were poisoned by mercurial emanations-and that attempts to get mercury from these mines have been made several times by the Government. The Akatui silver-mines of the same district have always had the most dreadful reputation for their, unhealthiness.

²⁵ "Siberia as a Colony," p. 207 St. Petersburg, l882.

²⁶ See Appendix.

²⁷ One of the most characteristic cases out of those which became known by scores in 1881, is the following :—in 1872, the Kursk nobility treated the Governor of the province to a dinner. A big proprietor, M. Annenkoff, was entrusted with proposing a toast for the Governor. He proposed it, but added in conclusion :—"Your Excellence, I drink your health, but I heartily wish that you would devote some more time to the affairs of your province." Next week a postcar with two gendarmes stopped at the door of his house; and without allowing him to see his friends, or even to bid a farewell to his wife, he was transported to Vyatka. It took six months of the most active applications to powerful persons at St. Petersburg, on behalf of his wife and the marshals of the Fatesh and Kursk nobility, to liberate him from this exile ( Gotos, Poryadok, &c. for February 20th and 21st, 1881).

²⁸ Extracts from the speech of M. Shakeeff at the sittings of the representatives of the St. Petersburg nobility are given in the Appendix C.

²⁹ In the course of 1881, 2837 cases of "politicals," exiled by order of Administration, were examined; out of them 1950 were in Siberia (Poryadok, September 17th, 1881)

³⁰ Golos, February 12th,' 1881. Since April, 1881, the editors of newspapers were severely prohibited from publishing anything about the Administrative exiles; and all newspapers having the slightest pretension to be independent were suppressed.

³¹ See Yadrintseff's Siberia, and Vostochnoye Obozrenie.

³² I. Polyakoff, Reise nach der Insel Sakhalin in den Jahren 1881-82. A us dem Russischen übersetzt von Dr. Arzruni. Berlin, 1884.--Russian original in the Inveztia of the Russian Geographical Society, 1883.

³³ "Jahresbericht der Geographischen Gesellschaft von Bern," 1883-84, pp. 129 and 39. See also St. Petersburg's Herold, NN. 353ñ-356. 1884.

³⁴ Dr. Petri, l.c.

³⁵ According to Dr. Petri the Sakhalin coal costs from seven to seven and a half dollars per ton, while the Japanese and Australian are paid only five dollars.

³⁶ Köppen's "Sakhalin; its Coal Mines and Coal Industry," St. Petersburg, 1875. A most reliable work.

³⁷ Tahlberg, "Exile to Sakhalin," in Vyestnik Evropy, May, 1879.

³⁸ Köppen, l.c.

³⁹ The Poryadok, published by Professor Stasulevitch (suppressed since), September 8 (20), 1881.

⁴⁰ January 31, 1882. Dr. Petri, l.c.

⁴¹ The following pages are reprinted, by permission, from the Nineteenth Century, June, 1883.

⁴² Mr. Lansdell repeats this accusation against Herzen with such a persistence, in different parts of his book, and in the Contemporary Review, that, in order to be certain about this subject I wrote to the son of Herzen, the distinguished Professor of Physiology, A. A. Herzen. Here is a translation of his reply, dated Lausanne, February 26, 1881 :

⁴³ Contemporary Review, p. 285.

⁴⁴ "Leaves from a Prison Diary." London, 1885

⁴⁵ "Thirty Years' Experiences of a Medical Officer in the English Convict Service." London, 1884

⁴⁶ "Prison Characters," by a Prison Matron. London, 1866.

⁴⁷ "The Punishment and Prevention of Crime." "English Citizen" series. London, 1885.

⁴⁸ "Five Years' Penal Servitude," by One who has, endured it. (George Routledge and Sons.)

⁴⁹ "It rose to 70l. at the Lusk prison-farm, where forty-two convicts only were kept. See Edmund Du Cane's "Punishment and Prevention of Crime."

⁵⁰ Michael Davitt's "Leaves."

⁵¹ "Five Years' Penal Servitude," p. 61

⁵² Compte Rendu général de l'Administration de la Justice Criminelle en France en 1878 et 1879; Reinach, Les Récidivistes. Paris, 1882.

⁵³ "If those who die after liberation and those whose recidive crimes are not discovered be taken into account, it remains an open question whether the number of récidivistes is not equal to that of the liberated prisoners." - Lombroso, L'Uomo delinquente.

⁵⁴ Compare Eugene Simon's La Cite Chinoise.

⁵⁵ "Five Years' Penal Servitude," by One who has endured it, p. 61

⁵⁶ Du Cane, l.c., p. 176.

⁵⁷ Speech of M. Dupuy (de l'Aisne) at the French Chamber of Deputies on January 18, 1887.

⁵⁸ "The Punishment and Prevention of Crime," p. 176.

⁵⁹ In Russia the number of récidivistes is only eighteen per cent, as against forty to fifty per cent. in Western Europe.

⁶⁰ "Dartmoor," by late B 24, in the Daily News, 1886.

⁶¹ Mr. Davitt's remarks in his "Leaves from a Prison Diary," show that the same thing is true with regard to the prisons of this country.

⁶² [Il] Delinquente; Udine, 1875.

⁶³ Nuovi orizzonti del Diritto e della Procedure penale ; Socialismo e Criminalita, and several others.

⁶⁴ L'Alcoolismo, sue consequenza morali e sue cause; Catania, 1887. A study which I cannot but warmly recommend to those writers on the subject who so often mistake the effects for causes.

⁶⁵ Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Berlin, 1882. Pathologie der Psychischen Krankheiten.

⁶⁶ Zweifelhaffe Geistzustande, Erlangen, 1873; Grundzuge der Criminal-Psychologie, 1872; Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Psychopatie, Stuttgart, 1875.

⁶⁷ Psycizologie Naturelle, Paris, 1868; Congres Penitentiaire de Stockholm en 1878, vol. ii.

⁶⁸ "Insanity with Relation to Crime," London, 1880.

⁶⁹ S. A. Hill, "The Effects of the Weather upon the Death Rate and Crime in India," Nature, vol. 29, 1884, p. 338. The formula shows that the number of suicides and acts of violence committed each month is equal to the excess of the average monthly temperature over 48° Fahr. multiplied by 7 2, plus the average moistness, multiplied by 2. l'he author adds: "Crimes of violence in India may therefore be said to be proportional in freguency to the tendency to prickly heat, that excruciating condition of the skin induced by a high temperature combined with moisture. Any one who has suffered from this ailment, and knows how it affected his temper will really understand how the conditions which produce it may sometimes lead to homicide and other crimes." Under cold weather the influence is the revorse.

⁷⁰ See also Mayr, Gesetzmassigkeit in Gesellschaftsleben, as also E. Ferri in Archivio di Psychiatria, fasc. 2nd; La Teoria dell' imputabilata e la Negazione del libero arbitrio, Bologna, 1881; and many others.

⁷¹ Das Ferbrechen in seiner Abhangigkeit von Temperatur, Berlin, 1882. Also, Colajanni's Oscillations thermometriques, et de'lits contre les personnes, in Bibl. d'Antilropologie Crimiselle, Lyons, 1886.

⁷² L' Uomo delinquente, 3rd edition, Torino, 1884.

⁷³ Sull' Incremento del Delitto, Roma, 1879.

⁷⁴ "Responsibility in Mental Disease," London, 1872; "Body and Will," London, 1883.

⁷⁵ Maudsley's "Responfiibility in Mental Disease." On page 27, Mr. Maudsley says: "In like manner, though a criminal might be compassionated it would still be necessary to deprive him of the power of doing further mischief; society has clearly the right to insist on that being done; and though he might be kindly cared for, the truest kindness to him and others would still be the enforcement of that kind of discipline which is best fitted to bring him, if possible, to a healthy state of mind, even if it were hard labor within the measure of his strength." Learing aside the "right" of society to enforce hard labor, which might be doubted upon, because Mr. Maudsley recognizes himself that society has "manufactured its criminals," WG wonder that so open a mind admits, even for a moment, that imprisonment with hard labor may be best fitted to bring anybody to a healthy state of mind.

⁷⁶ Vierteljahrsschrift fur gerichtlzche und offentliche Medicin, 1867.

⁷⁷ Journal of Mental Science, January, 1870, p. 488 sq.

⁷⁸ The importance of this factor, well pointed out by Ed. Du Cane, is proved by the circumstance that what they call "the criminal age" is the age between twenty-five and thirty-four. After that age, a desire for a quieter life makes the breaches of law suddenly decrease. The proposal of Ed. Du Cane ("if those persons whose career evidences in them marked criminal tendencies could either be locked up or kept under supervision until they had passed, say, the age of forty") is typical of the peculiar logics developed in those people who have been for some time superintendents of prisons.

⁷⁹ He says: "Murders occasionally occur in connection with robbery, it is true; but they are as a rule accidental to the perpetration of the latter crime, and scarcely ever premeditated. The most heinous of all offenses murder deliberately intended and planned before its commission is ordinarily the offspring of the passions of revenge and jealousy, or the outcome of social or political wrongs; and is more frequently the result of some derangement of the nobler instincts of human nature than traceable to its more debased orders or appetites." Leaves from a Prison Diary, vol. i, page 17.

⁸⁰ Nobody knows exactly how many scores, or hundreds, of Poles were executed in 1863-65.

⁸¹ "Du Cane's "Punishment and Prevention of Crime," p. 33.

⁸² One of them, Dr. Arthur Mitchell, is well known Scotland. Compare his "Insane in Private Dwellings," Edinburgh, 1864; as also "Care end treatment of Insane Poor," in Edinb. Med. Journal for 1868.

⁸³ That is, between Netchaieff and Shevitch.